Review of Research on Resilience (2023)
Many potential mediating mechanisms have been posited to connect status as a transracial adoptee with White parents to healthy racial-ethnic identity development. Some include parent mental health, parental limit setting, parental sensitivity and responsiveness, family coherence (being “on the same page” about race-related issues), and racial-ethnic socialization practices [24][27][29]. Among these, previous research points to racial-ethnic socialization as a particularly crucial mediator that stems from a strong theoretical foundation.
At a more general level, the Cumulative Effect Hypothesis asserts that rather than focusing on specific risk factors and outcomes, it is the accumulation of adverse experiences (regardless of sub-magnitude) that provides the major pathway to maladjustment; as a result, research should prioritize understanding developmental mediating processes [25][37]. This emphasis on mediating mechanisms as the core of resilience is consistent with Rutter’s (1987) theories [38] and suggests that studying racial-ethnic socialization as a mediating process is both reasonable and beneficial.
Similarly, individual-level theories also speak to racial-ethnic socialization as a salient mechanism. According to Shared Fate Theory, when adoptive parents engage in racial-ethnic socialization, it encourages the parent-child bond and results in better psychological adjustment [15]. Thus, from an attachment theory perspective, this mediating process may bring about positive outcomes by promotion of attachment adaptive systems [34]. Further, Erikson’s early assertions about racial-ethnic identity suggest that immersion in an inclusive environment in childhood is crucial to unity of personal and cultural identity; Helm’s extension then added self-concerned attitudes, reference group orientation, and overt expression of group affiliation as crucial parts of childhood and adolescent identity [28]. Beyond the theoretical basis for RE socialization as a mediator, the process itself must be defined.
THE ROLE OF RACIAL-ETHNIC SOCIALIZATION
The so-called “transracial adoption paradox” is based on children of color in White homes facing an external reality that does not match the socialization they have receive from family with a different, more privileged lived experience [23]. The goal of racial-ethnic socialization is to positively influence feelings of belonging, coping with race-based stress, and self-esteem in transracial adoptee children while respecting and acknowledging racial-ethnic differences. The process itself encompasses three key parts: 1) preparation for bias, 2) promotion of mistrust, and 3) cultural socialization [2]. Moreover, it works at multiple ecological levels from the child-level all the way up to environmental context [24].
In a 2016 study, Arnold et al. looked at racial-ethnic socialization across ecological levels by comparing the three components among non-adoptees (NAs) and transracial adoptees (TRAs). Their most notable finding was that while preparation for bias was higher in NAs, cultural socialization was reportedly higher in TRAs. This suggests that while NAs may receive socialization and preparation for a racist world in unstructured ways, TRAs are more likely to report structured, explicit socialization [2]. This makes sense because NAs have peer and family networks that serve as authentic environmental sources of RE socialization, but TRAs must rely on White adoptive parents as their primary resource in many cases. Thus, it unfortunately drives home the idea that effective racial-ethnic socialization may not be something that White adoptive parents can inherently provide for their children of color.
THEORY OF CHANGE
Following the risk factor of interest (status as a transracial adoptee with White parents), the concern is the multifinality in outcomes that emerges from a common starting point. How do some transracial adoptees of color establish strong racial-ethnic identity while others struggle so immensely? Ultimately, this Theory of Change views resilience as a process composed of a key mediating mechanism that promotes the positive outcome [38]. Racial-ethnic socialization is the means through which transracial adoptees with White parents develop a healthy sense of racial-ethnic identity.
In order to facilitate and promote effective racial-ethnic socialization, programming for transracial adoptees' families should start early and continue throughout childhood and adolescence. By providing group-level, family-oriented training, the hope is that the intervention will successfully promote racial-ethnic socialization that appropriately affects multiple ecological levels – from the internal world of the child to the social environment the family is nestled within.
MODERATING VARIABLES
When considering confounding factors that influence the mediating process of interest, there are a plethora of possibilities. Some are unalterable characteristics of the adopted child, while others are based in the realm of the adoptive family. Among them, three are particularly relevant: race of the transracially adopted child, age of the child at adoption, and sibling presence and type.
1. RACE OF TRANSRACIALLY ADOPTED CHILD
To start, knowing that there is scientific consensus that people of distinct races differentially experience life, it is no surprise that the race of the child influences their psychosocial outcomes. In 1999, Brooks and Barth published a comparison study of adoptees across racial groups and genders [6]. Their results indicated that Caucasian and African American males were more likely to have drug, delinquency, and externalizing problems, and Asian females fell in with these groups when it came to low general functioning (measured by the Global Assessment Scale). Among African American males and Asian adoptees, there were similar rates of discomfort over racial-ethnic appearance, but interestingly, African American females showed higher pride in racial-ethnic appearance and identity. This suggests that differences in outcomes exist between racial groups and that more research should be done to elucidate race as a moderating variable.
2. AGE AT ADOPTION
Unlike race, age at adoption is a moderator that has been more frequently researched. The early childhood phase is full of neurodevelopmental critical periods, and children once under institutional care are the closest researchers can ethically get to experiments on early deprivation. In essence, studying these children provides a glimpse into atypical development where a primary caregiver-child relationship is entirely absent [30]. Many studies have shown that older age at adoption is correlated with later externalizing problems, quasi-autism, inattention/overactivity, and cognitive impairment, as well as co-occurrence of other pre-adoptive risks like poor quality of care, prenatal drug exposure, and multiple pre-adoptive placements [27]. Thus, it appears that older age at adoption is indicative of disruptions in typical attachment systems and lack of environmental stimulation across ecological levels.
Further, it should be noted that age at adoption is closely related to timing, duration, and severity of deprivation in institutionalized care, but research findings are inconsistent [30]. Many different theories attempt to address the implications of sensitive periods, individual differences, and latent effects. The Allostatic Load Hypothesis posits that over time, accumulation of adverse childhood experiences may induce a compounding, negative effect on sociocognitive function and capacities. Moreover, epigenetic principles suggest that the chronic, environmental influence of deprivation could differentially affect expression of genes critical for typical development.
3. SIBLING PRESENCE AND TYPE
At the post-adoption level, family structure – specifically sibling presence and type – has emerged as a largely influential moderator. As the typically longest lasting family relationship of the life course, it is no wonder that siblings often act as either a strong buffer or burden. In 2016, Farr et al. looked specifically at the sibling piece of the adoption equation via a study of family structure in same race, domestic adoption [26]. Interestingly, they discovered that when siblings, whether also adopted or not, engage in the family’s adoption-related experiences, the result is improved psychological adjustment and positive feelings in the adoptee. Farr et al. emphasize the connection between their findings and broader literature that highlights sibling closeness as crucial in healthy behavioral adjustment [26]. That said, back in 1999, Brooks and Barth demonstrated that having only non-adopted siblings increased odds of an adoptee’s poor adjustment by 2.5x [6]. So, perhaps it is necessary to dissect the differential relationships between adopted–non-adopted vs. adopted–adopted siblings to truly understand how closeness and understanding can manifest. It is clear that siblings help to shape adoptees’ familial relationships and experiences with self from childhood into adulthood. Therefore, the sibling structure moderator is particularly applicable to this Theory of Change because of the role of family investment and involvement in racial-ethnic socialization.
